History of Andalusia
Centuries of cultural exchange have shaped a historical identity that is rich, diverse, and profoundly fascinating.
A melting pot of cultures in Andalusia
Modern-day Andalusia is the result of a true melting pot of cultures that have dominated its lands since time immemorial. Few regions in Europe or even the world can boast such a rich and varied past as this autonomous community. For this reason, on this page we present a brief history of Andalusia, mindful that many details and important episodes will remain untold, as each province and city has its own history, which we review in each of the pages dedicated to them.
Contents
An entry point for hominids: Prehistory
To date, the first evidence of the presence of the Homo species in Andalusia dates back to the Lower Paleolithic, within the Acheulean culture (400,000-70,000 BC). However, some developing hypotheses point to an earlier arrival, which could indicate that the Strait of Gibraltar was used as a gateway from Africa to Europe.
In any case, in a brief history of Andalusia such as this, a mention of important archaeological sites from later periods is essential, such as:
- Carihuela Cave, in Piñar, Granada
- Zájara Cave, in Cuevas del Almanzora, Almería
- Gibraltar caves
During this period, Homo sapiens appeared, caves were used as shelter, and rock art emerged. In Andalusia, it has its own style, called ‘Southern Art’:
- La Pileta Cave, in Almería
- Ambrosio Cave, in Almería
- La Motilla Cave, in Granada
- Malalmuerzo Cave, in Granada
- El Morrón Cave, in Jaén
- Nerja Cave, in Málaga
Although agriculture and livestock farming were already developed, many caves continued to be used as dwellings and burial sites. Notable examples include:
- Bat Cave, in Córdoba
- Woman’s Cave, in Granada
- Carigüela Cave, in Granada
- Treasure Cave, in Málaga
The invention of metal smelting led to advances in agriculture, hunting, fishing, and warfare, among other aspects. There are important sites in the region from the Copper, Bronze, and Iron Ages. For example, the El Argar site from the Bronze Age in Almería is significant not only in Andalusian history but also in European history, as it has served to classify an entire culture: the Argaric culture.
Target of Eastern colonizers: Ancient History
The most notable aspect of Ancient History in Andalusia is perhaps the commercial influence and even the colonization of certain territories by peoples coming from other parts of the Mediterranean. First were the Phoenicians from Tyre, until the 6th century BC, who settled in places such as Malaka and Cerro del Villar (Málaga), Gadir (Cádiz), or Sexi (Almuñécar). Almost immediately after, it was the turn of the Carthaginians or Punics.
Within this brief history of Andalusia, Tartessos deserves special mention, a civilization that emerged in the Age of Metals but remained healthy due to its relations with the Phoenicians and later the Carthaginians, until its collapse around 500 BC. Its culture is still being studied, but it developed in the current provinces of Huelva, Sevilla, and Cádiz, and seems to have been the result of the acculturation of indigenous people through Phoenician influence.
Turdetania, in Western Andalusia, is the heir to Tartessos, being one of the most developed Iberian peoples until the arrival of the Romans (late 3rd century BC). Other contemporary Iberian peoples settled in current Andalusian territory were the Bastetani and the Oretani.
This territory, incidentally, was the end of the world for the ancient Greeks, as the Strait of Gibraltar was where the hero Heracles (Hercules to the Romans) installed his columns to indicate that there was nothing beyond (Non Plus Ultra). As we will see further down in this brief history of Andalusia, there was indeed a world beyond… and Andalusia served as the base for discovering it.
The Romans in the history of Andalusia
A prominent chapter of this brief history of Andalusia must be dedicated to Roman rule. Since the end of the Second Punic War (3rd century BC), Rome established itself as the dominant power of the Iberian Peninsula. Initially, Hispania Ulterior corresponded roughly to present-day Andalusia, although there were later other administrative divisions, eventually becoming known as Baetica. Other Roman provinces with territories in present-day Andalusia were Lusitania and Carthaginensis.
What is known as the Romanization of the territory began: a practically total assimilation of this culture, language, legislation, economy, and political organization… It also meant planting the seed of Christianization, which took root and germinated strongly some time later.
In this territory of the southern Iberian Peninsula, there were large population centers, linked by important Roman roads: Corduba, Gades, Malaca, Iliberris, Hispalis, Itálica… Baetica supplied the Empire with important products, such as minerals (including gold and silver), cereals, oil, wine, and garum, among many others.
Therefore, Rome represents a central episode in this brief history of Andalusia due to its great cultural contributions to the region, but this Roman province was also a key location for the Empire as a whole, not only for its economic importance but also for some of the citizens born there.
In particular, these figures:
- Trajan (53-117 AD): Roman Emperor, born in Itálica
- Hadrian (76-138 AD): Roman Emperor who succeeded Trajan, of whom he was a second cousin on his mother’s side. Although there is no consensus regarding his birth in Itálica, his family’s origins in this city in the current province of Seville seem clear.
- Seneca (4 B.C. 65 A.D.): philosopher, native of the city of Corduba
Visigoths and Byzantines: Early Middle Ages
With the fall of the Roman Empire and the barbarian invasions at the beginning of the 5th century AD, a new stage begins in the history of Andalusia, as the people who eventually imposed themselves and settled in the south of the Iberian Peninsula were the Visigoths. However, their definitive domination of the territory was slow and progressive, and was not completed until the death of King Leovigild at the end of the 6th century. While this unification was taking place, the Andalusian coasts and large areas of the eastern Andalusian interior were controlled by the Byzantine Empire, heir to the Roman Empire, which named this province Spania.
Malaca and Asidonia were two of the great Byzantine Andalusian cities of this period. And from Visigothic Andalusia, several religious figures are worth noting: Saint Isidore of Seville and Saint Hermenegild who, despite being born in Medina del Campo, was governor of Visigothic Baetica and, with his conversion, was one of the great architects of the abandonment of Arianism and the adoption of Catholicism as the official religion.
Momentum in the history of Andalusia: Al-Andalus
While all periods are important in the overall history of Andalusia, it is no exaggeration to say that the Arab invasion starting in 711 represented a true momentum. This was a conquest that, paradoxically, provided a great boost to the region at all levels, especially culturally. It fostered a coexistence, not always peaceful, between Hebrews, Christians, and Arabs, with the latter dominating and generically calling the southern peninsula Al-Andalus.
The first political entity organized here was the Emirate of Córdoba, initially dependent on the Umayyad Caliphate of Damascus and later independent from the Abbasid Caliphate of Baghdad, starting with Abd al-Rahman I. A civil independence that later also became religious, as Abd al-Rahman III established the Caliphate of Córdoba in 912, thereby proclaiming himself caliph, that is, the successor of Muhammad himself. The Mosque of Córdoba or the palace complex of Medina Azahara are some of the best examples of this period.
The Arab expansion was so great that it reached almost the entire Iberian Peninsula, but from the 9th century onwards, a gradual retreat began, the result of the reconquering advance of the Christian kingdoms of the north. Simultaneously, internal divisions led to the fall of the Caliphate in 1031, resulting in a territorial decomposition into different kingdoms, known as the Taifa Kingdoms, with the Taifa of Seville being one of the most important.
At the end of the 11th century and during the 12th, two Berber invasions occurred from across the Strait of Gibraltar (first the Almoravids and later the Almohads) who tried to bring greater unity to the Taifa kingdoms.
At the beginning of the 13th century, a significant Christian advance took place, the main milestone of which was the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa (1212), a fundamental episode in the history of Andalusia and Spain in general, as it represented the union of the different northern kingdoms (Castile, Aragon, and Navarre). As a result of that victory, the Christian kingdoms of Seville, Córdoba, and Jaén subsequently emerged under Castilian rule, albeit with some autonomy, while only Granada remained under Muslim rule, having been born with the Zirid dynasty in the 11th century and governed thereafter by the Nasrids.
This geopolitical situation, in which present-day Andalusia was divided between Christians (northwest) and Muslims (southeast), lasted for approximately two centuries. On the Christian side, kings such as Ferdinand III the Saint and Alfonso X the Wise stood out, both buried in Seville Cathedral, which itself showcases that mixture of cultures of medieval Andalusia: a Gothic temple begun in the early 15th century, whose bell tower was the minaret of a 12th-century Muslim mosque. And on the Muslim side, the great jewel that has come down to us is the Alhambra in Granada, a symbol of the splendor of the Nasrid dynasty.
End of the Reconquista and Conquest of the New World
1492 is another prominent moment in this brief history of Andalusia, as it is for Spain and the world in general. It is the era of the reign of the Catholic Monarchs, Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon, and the date on which they made three important decisions, forged precisely in what is now Andalusia.
Firstly, the Granada War ended with the capture of the city on January 2, following the agreement with the Nasrid king Boabdil. This war, which had begun much earlier and had other notable chapters (such as the Battle of Málaga in 1487), is considered the final episode of the Reconquista. Months later, the expulsion of the Sephardim (Jews from Castile and Aragon) took place, who were widely settled in what is now Andalusia, as evidenced by important Jewish quarters (Córdoba, Jaén, or Lucena). And finally, the arrival of Christopher Columbus in America under the Castilian flag. A voyage that was largely organized in the province of Huelva, as documented by the route of the Columbian Sites.
In this way, the Modern Age was inaugurated, with Spain playing a central role, and in particular what is now Andalusia. We thus enter a new stage for the history of Andalusia: that of the Habsburg dynasty, with Charles I and Philip II as great exponents of the power of the new empire. And although Philip II established the capital in Madrid, Andalusian ports maintained unprecedented traffic, especially that of Seville. This made it one of the most cosmopolitan and wealthiest cities on the continent, thanks to the establishment here of the Casa de Contratación, to promote overseas travel and hold the monopoly on its trade.
Another palpable consequence in this and many other cities was the proliferation of convents and religious temples, driven precisely by the evangelizing mission in the New World and the resources arriving from it. The strong defense of the Catholic religion also extended to the relationship with the Moriscos who still inhabited Andalusian territory, as evidenced by the crisis of the Rebellion of the Alpujarras (1570-72) or the definitive expulsion in 1609.
The best exponent of this golden age of Andalusian history is art, in particular:
- Architecture, with its splendid Renaissance (Jaén Cathedral, monuments of Úbeda and Baeza) and its exuberant Baroque (Carthusian monastery of Jerez de la Frontera and numerous chapels). A style that, incidentally, is even more important for its export to Latin America (Cuzco Cathedral or Mexico City Cathedral, among others)
- Painting: this is the era when some of the greatest Spanish painters emerged, such as Velázquez and Murillo
- Sculpture: this is the period of work for important names such as Pedro de Mena or Alonso Cano
Nevertheless, the 17th century also marks the beginning of a period of political and social decline, which also goes hand in hand with the decline of Spain in the international context during the period known as that of the Minor Habsburgs (Philip III, Philip IV, and Charles II), with various social revolts, occasionally due to tax increases.
Industrialization attempts and the Bourbon dynasty
The arrival of the Bourbon dynasty in the 18th century represents another chapter in the history of Andalusia, in which administrative measures and reforms were adopted to try to relaunch the region, which began to notice the loss of momentum in trade with the Americas compared to other powers, such as the Dutch and the English. Some examples of these attempts are the creation of the Casa de la Lonja, today the General Archive of the Indies in Seville, or the transfer of the Casa de Contratación to Cádiz.
But these attempts, in general, did not bear fruit. Nor did the process of industrialization, which did not take root in the southern peninsula as it did in other parts of Spain and Europe. A depression that was exacerbated by the Napoleonic invasion and the parallel loss of the first American colonies. The Cortes of Cádiz and its Constitution, ‘la Pepa’, was only a ray of hope that eventually faded in the first decades of the 19th century, although it served as inspiration for the progressive rise of liberalism in that century. The Museum of the Cortes of Cádiz takes the visitor back to this period when Cádiz became the ‘capital’ of the Spain that refused to submit to French rule.
A liberalism that, in truth, was still very immature in Andalusia, as with the monarchical Restoration after the Glorious Revolution of 1868, ‘caciquismo’ (political bossism) found a perfect territory to expand in large rural areas of Andalusia. A reality that coexisted with another phenomenon deeply rooted in the deep Andalusia of the 19th century: banditry. And the best place to learn about it is the Banditry Museum, in the town of Ronda, Málaga.
All in all, the brief period of economic prosperity in Spain until the disaster of ’98, which some historians call “the Indian summer of Spanish history,” also brought some rays of sunshine to the history of Andalusia. In particular, some projects linked to the industrialization of the country. For example, the development of the railway or the mining operations in Huelva, driven by English investment, of which monuments such as the Tinto Pier-Wharf and everything known as the ‘English Legacy’ are good examples, serving as a significant tourist resource for this city.
Industrialization attempts and the Bourbon dynasty
This brief history of Andalusia reaches the 20th century, to some extent, marked by some good intentions for development. For example, with the Ibero-American Exposition of 1929, which showed the region’s desire to open up to the world again, especially to the American continent, with which it had so many ties in previous centuries. Its main legacy was the Plaza de España in Seville.
The Second Spanish Republic was also, for many, a period of hope for development and social equality, but it also served as the incubator for an anti-clerical sentiment that exploded during the Civil War and left great destruction in the artistic heritage of numerous churches and convents. But that was only one of the many consequences of the conflict, which left a region exhausted and greatly decimated in population, with true family tragedies of which the execution of Federico García Lorca is the greatest exponent.
The post-war period was especially hard in southern Spain and although, like the rest of the country, it began to slightly raise its head in the 1950s, Andalusia remained for a long time at the back of the pack among European regions.
Intentions and great contrasts of the 20th century
The 21st century opens a new chapter in the history of Andalusia. A region that, without wishing to ignore some problems it must solve, is now fully integrated into today’s modern Europe: it is an open and tolerant society, with quality free public services, a very well-interconnected transport network (efficient motorways, commuter trains, high-speed rail, large-scale ports, international airports, etc.) and a growing professionalization of its productive sectors.
It is true that the GDP per capita in Andalusia is still significantly lower than the European and even the Spanish average. However, this issue makes this region very competitive in one of the healthiest economic sectors: tourism. Andalusia’s relatively low prices are an attraction for international travelers, who enjoy high-quality hospitality and transport services here at a lower cost than in other tourist regions.
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